Figure 48: Process models for management and engineering

 

 

content

A new era since World War II

Project management

Integrated management model

Other business process models

Software development

 

 

At all times there have been mental models guiding the work of managers and engineers.

 

 

A new era since World War II

 

A new era began in World War II. On one side the computer changed all. On the other side evolved, developed by research of scientists for military purposes

·        Operational/ Operations Research [Morse, Kimball, 1951]

·        Systems Analysis [Barish, 1951],

·        Systems Engineering [Goode, Machol, 1957] and the

·        Programming-Planning-Budgeting-System (PPBS, 1961-1970; [Kaiser, 1972]).

 

Armand Vallin Feigenbaum extended quality control to “Total Quality Control” [1951].

 

 

Project management

 

Network planning as the “Critical Path Method” (CPM) and “Program Evaluation and Review Technique” (PERT) has first been applied 1957 in commercial as well as in military projects to save costs. Soon this was called “project management”. In the 1980s and 1990s the methodologies

·        GDPM (“Goal Directed Project Management”)

·        PMBOK („Project Management Body of Knowledge“)

·        PRINCE2 („Projects in Controlled Environments“) and

·        ICB („IPMA Competence Baseline“)

were established. In the 2000s followed „extreme“ and „agile“ project management [DeCarlo, 2004; Chin, 2004; Highsmith, 2004; Schwaber, 2004].

 

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) developed many international standards for quality management, e. g. ISO 9001 or ISO 10 006 for quality management in projects or ISO 15288 for Systems Engineering.

 

 

Integrated management model

 

Around 1960 Joseph A. Orlicky developed a progamm technique for „Material Requirements Planning“ (MRP). Continuous improvement [Hopp, Spearman, 1996] led twenty years later to „Manufacturing Resource Planning“ (MRP II). Further extensions led to a integrated model for manufacturing firms, the „Enterprise Resource Planning“ (ERP; [Waldner, 1990; Shtub, 1999). It is also applicable on all businesses.

Quite other approaches are

·        the Harvard „Balanced Scorecard“ [Kaplan, Norton, 1992; 1996], for which a great number of software is available [Marr, Nealy, 2001]

·        the MIT “Business Process Reengineering” (BPR) [Hammer, Champy 1993]

·        the German „Business Process Engineering“ [Scheer, 1994] and

·        the Swiss „Business Engineering“ [Oesterle, 1995; Oesterle, Winter, 2000].

 

 

Other business process models

 

Some other models in the business area for product innovation and development, strategy and organization are with respect to

innovation: “stage-gate” [Cooper 1986; 1998] and IMM („Integrated Innovation Model“; [Sarkar 2007]

development: SPICE („Software Process Improvement and Capability Determination“; [Dorling, 1993; El Emam, Drouin, Melo, 1998]) and CMMI (“Capability  Maturity Model Integration”; [Chrissis, Konrad, Shrum, 2003])

organization: BPR (“Business Process Reengineering”) or BPI („Business Process Improvement“) [Hammer, Champy 1993]

quality: „Kaizen“ [Imai, 1986] and „Six Sigma“, MBNQA („Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award“; [APQC, 1989; Heaphy, Gruska, 1995]) and EFQM (European Foundation for Quality Management [1992]).

 

 

Software development

 

A special kind of process models were developed for large software systems, mostly based on the “software life cycle” [Hosier, 1961]. Some of them are:

·        “waterfall” [Royce, 1970]

·        “spiral” [Boehm, 1985]

·        „scrum“ [Takeuchi, Nonaka, 1986]

·        “maturity” [Humphrey 1989]

·        „joint application“ [Wood, Silver, 1989]

·        „rapid application“ [Martin, 1991]

·        “vee” [Forsberg, Mooz, 1992]

·        “chaos” [Raccoon, 1995]

·        „adaptive“ [Highsmith 1997]

·        “extreme” [Beck, 1999]

·        “feature driven” [Coad, Lefebvre, De Luca, 1999]

·        „crystal“ [Cockburn, 2001; 2004]

·        „agile“ [Highsmith, 2002; Poppendieck, Poppendieck, 2003].

 

Already 1985 Barry W. Boehm spoke of “A Spiral Model of Software Development and Enhancement”. The British “Dynamic Systems Development Method” (DSDM; [Stapleton, 1997; Coleman, Verbruggen, 1998]) and the  “Rational Unified Process” (RUP), mainly developed by Philippe Kruchten [1999], are vast frameworks for software development.

 

Since these process models are also named “Model-Based Engineering” they may not be confounded with “Model-Driven Engineering”, meaning mostly the use of models as artifacts during the engineering lifecycle.

 

 

Bibliography

Process models for management and engineering